LEARNING ISSUES
1. How two ion channels collaborate in the control of electrical signals in the brain.
Sodium and potassium are ions found throughout the body. An extra potassium are pumped into interior of the cells while an extra sodium are pumped out to surrounding fluid. When these iron are allowed to return back to their original locations by passing rapidly through channels in nerve cells outer membrane, an electrical neurons are created. Nerve cells called axons, initiate these impulses and carry them from one cell to the next.
conclusion: Ion sodium and potassium are important ions that will generate nerve cells to initiate the impulses and carry them from one cell to the other.
2.what is the third protein?
A molecular motif which allows both sodium and potassium channel link to a protein called ankyrin-G. It binds tightly to the nerve cell's cytoskeleton, ensuring the channels' stabilization at the initial segment. In the potassium channels, this chemical motif was identified nearly same to the previously discovered in sodium channels that will link to the ankyrin-G in a similar manner.
conclusion: Ankyrin-G helps the potassium and sodium channel link to it in a similar manner.
3.why channel partnership only present in only vertebrate?
The channel partnership only present in only vertebrate because the ankyrin-G interaction is only present vertebrates.
conclusion: Ankyrin-G only present in vertebrates
The interaction between ankyrin-G and both potassium and sodium channels will build a unique domain of the cell that initiate the nerve impulse for boosting the impulse across the nodes of Ranvier.
conclusion: The boosting of the impulse across the nodes of Ranvier is due to the interaction between ankyrin-G and potassium and sodium channels.
5. How the mechanism occur?
The relationship between potassium and sodium channels can reestablishing the type of nerve-cell impulse control seen in unaffected individuals. A new drug that increasing the openings of these potassium channels is now undergoing U.S and international that trials for epilepsy and such agents are also developed for other neurological and psychiatric conditions.
conclusion: The type of nerve-cell impulse control in unaffected individuals can be reestablished by the relationship between potassium and sodium channels.
Illness - Types of medicine - Duration recover
Headache - Panadol activefast - 30 minutes
Headache - Ponstan (200 mg) - 15 minutes
Sedative - Diazepam (1 mg) - 2 minute
Sedative - Propofol - 5 minute
Back pain - Voltaren SR 100 - 15 minutes
Back pain - Ponston (200 mg) - 15 minutes
1) Why does sedative types of medicine have shorter duration compared to others type of medicine?
2) How would medicine affect the function of neurotransmitter?
Learning Issues:
1) Why does sedative types of medicine have shorter duration compared to others type of medicine?
Sedative types of medicine have shorter duration compared to others types of medicine. This is because sedative will give effect to gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA). GABA is used at the great majority of fast inhibitory synapses in virtually every part of the brain. Many sedative or tranquilizing drugs act by enhancing the effects of GABA. When the amount of GABA increases, the speed of nerve transmissions will decreases. Sedative will depress the nervous system and can help in reducing pain, sleepiness, reducing anxiety, and muscle relaxation.However, other medicine besides sedative have longer duration of recovery because it does not related to the neurotransmitter in the brain. For example Voltaren is in a group of drugs called nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs). Voltaren works by reducing hormones that cause inflammation and pain in the body. (From MediResource Inc.)
2) How would medicine affect the function of neurotransmitter?
Many medicine either similar to the effects of naturally occurring neurotransmitters or impact aspects of the system. It can enhance or interfere the activity of neurotransmitters and receptors within the synapses of the brain. Some neurotransmitters carry inhibitory messages across the synapses, while others carry excitatory messages. eurons expressing certain types of neurotransmitters sometimes form distinct systems, where activation of the system affects large volumes of the brain, called volume transmission. Major neurotransmitter systems include thenoradrenaline (norepinephrine) system, the dopamine system, the serotonin system and thecholinergic system.
Drugs targeting the neurotransmitter of such systems affect the whole system; this fact explains the complexity of action of some drugs. Cocaine, for example, blocks the reuptake ofdopamineback into the presynaptic neuron, leaving the neurotransmitter molecules in thesynaptic gaplonger. Since the dopamine remains in the synapse longer, the neurotransmitter continues to bind to the receptors on the postsynaptic neuron, eliciting a pleasurable emotional response. Physical addiction to cocaine may result from prolonged exposure to excess dopamine in the synapses, causing the body to down-regulate some postsynaptic receptors. After the effects of the drug wear off, one might feel depressed because of the decreased probability of the neurotransmitter binding to a receptor. Chamberlin and Narins (2005) state that, heroin and codeine mimic the pain-regulating endorphins, filling their receptors to accomplish their effects .Caffeine consumption blocks the effect of adenosine, a transmitter that inhibits brain activity, and thus the consumer of caffeine experiences alertness.
3) Does Diazepam has side effect to the person who takes it?
Diazepam has side effect to the person who takes this medicine. The most frequent side effects of diazepam are drowsiness, fatigue, and ataxia (loss of balance). Rarely, diazepam causes a paradoxical reaction with excitability, muscle spasm, lack of sleep, and rage.Confusion,depression, speech problems, and double vision are also rare side effects of diazepam.
Diazepam can lead to addiction (dependency), especially when higher dosages are used over prolonged periods of time. In patients addicted to diazepam or after prolonged use, abrupt discontinuation of the medicine may cause symptoms of withdrawal (insomnia,headaches,nausea, vomiting, lightheadedness, sweating, anxiety, and fatigue). Seizures can occur in more severe cases of withdrawal. Therefore, after extended use, diazepam should be slowly tapered under a doctor's supervision rather than abruptly stopping the medication. ( from Medicine Net.com)
4) What are the effects to the person who takes overdose medicine?
Overdoses of drugs or chemicals can be either accidental or intentional. Drug overdoses occur when a person takes more than the medically recommended dose. However, some people may be more sensitive to certain medications so that the high end of the therapeutic range of a drug may be toxic for them. Drugs have effects on the entire body. Generally, in an overdose, the effects of the drug may be a heightened level of the therapeutic effects seen with regular use. In overdose, side effects become more pronounced, and other effects can take place, which would not occur with normal use. Large overdoses of some medications cause only minimal effects, while smaller overdoses of other medications can cause severe effects, possibly death. A single dose of some medications can be lethal to a young child. Some overdoses may worsen a person'schronic disease.
Below are some effect might occur because of overdose medicine:
- Problems with vital signs (temperature, pulse rate, respiratory rate, blood pressure) are possible and can be life threatening. Vital sign values can be increased, decreased, or completely absent.
- Sleepiness, confusion, and coma are common and can be dangerous if the person breathesvomit into the lungs (aspirated).
- Skin can be cool and sweaty, or hot and dry.
- Chest pain is possible and can be caused by heart or lung damage. Shortness of breath may occur. Breathing may get rapid, slow, deep, or shallow.
- Abdominal pain, nausea, vomiting, and diarrhea are possible. Vomiting blood, or blood in bowel movements, can be life threatening.
- Specific drugs can damage specific organs, depending on the drug.
Learning issue
1. What is the function of CNS?
The Central Nervous System, brain and spinal cord is function to receive the information from the sensory neurons (which receive the stimuli from sensory organ like eye, nose or skin). The brain in turn processes these stimuli and sends them back to the other parts of the body telling them to react to a particular type of stimulus. The motor neurons are responsible for receiving signals from the brain and spinal cord and transmitting them to the other organs of the body. The neurons use electrochemical signals or neurotransmitters in the transmission of signals or impulses from one neuron to another.
Our brain is divided into three parts, which are, fore brain, mid brain and hind brain. Cerebrum is located at fore brain which is consists of four lobes, which are frontal lobe, parietal lobe, occipital lobe and temporal lobe. Cognition and memory is mostly concentrated in the frontal lobe. Thus, any damage to this region leads to memory loss and dementia. In some people during old age, there is severe memory loss due to malfunctioning of the frontal lobe, which leads to Alzheimer's disease.
The motor cortex located in the frontal lobe is responsible for voluntary motor activity. Thus, this is one of the regions often implicated in Parkinson's disease.
The temporal lobe is involved in auditory (sound) sensation and is where the Wernicke's area (language recognition center) is located. The left temporal lobe is especially seen to be involved in speech. This lobe is also partly responsible for emotion, memory and speech.
The mid brain section serves as a relay center for sensory information from the ears to the cerebrum. So we know that the hearing is controlled by mid brain.
The hind brain is made up of the brain stem and the cerebellum. Which is the cerebellum is function in coordination of voluntary muscular movement. Thus, damage to the cerebellum results in cerebral palsy. Even uncontrolled movements, due to malfunctioning of the cerebellum can lead to seizures, which manifests as epilepsy. Thus, severe trauma to this region can even lead to paralysis and the cerebellum also function in maintaining balance and equilibrium while walking, swimming, and riding.
3. What is the different of the function of cerebellum and cerebrum?
The Cerebellum, located just above the brain stem, controls balance, equilibrium and movement coordination as well as help with muscle tone
The Cerebrum is located in the anterior (front) portion of the forebrain. The cerebrum is the largest part of the brain. Any kind of trauma or lesion in the cerebrum can lead to various diseases and disorders and mental illnesses. The cerebrum is divided into two cerebral hemispheres by the medial longitudinal fissure. These two hemispheres are connected to each other by a fibrous band of nerves called the corpus callosum. The cortex of each hemisphere is divided into four lobes – the frontal lobe, temporal lobe, parietal lobe and the occipital lobe. Determines intelligence, personality, interpretation of sensory impulses and motor function. It also helps with planning and organization as well as touch sensation.
4. What is the function of spinal cord?
A cross section of the spinal cord just like butterfly shape which is the region of gray matter. Surrounding the gray matter is white matter. The gray matter is formed by nerve cells and the white matter by myelin-sheathed neuronal tracts, which contain sensory and motor neurons. All sensory tracts travel up toward the brain and are called "afferent pathways." All motor tracts travel down from the brain and are called "efferent pathways."
Our spinal cord also benefit to transmitting information to the brain and sending commands to the body, the spinal cord is also responsible for most reflexes. A reflex is a built-in response to dangerous stimuli, allowing the body to react faster than it would if the information had to travel to the brain, be thought about and then travel back to the body. Snatching back your hand from a source of pain instantly is an example of a reflex.
And the function of the spinal cord, reflex arc is the pathway of nerves through the spinal cord which allows reflexes to work. The first stage of the reflex arc is stimulation of a receptor nerve. Receptor nerves can sense excessive heat, coolness, pressure or over-stretching of a muscle. That sensory neuron sends the impulse to the spinal cord. Depending on the reflex being stimulated, that sensory nerve connects directly with a motor or glandular nerve, or goes through an intermediate nerve and then to the motor or glandular nerve. That nerve signals the muscles or glands to react.
5. What happen if the spinal cord gets injured?
There are some injuries so severe that they cause tissue damage when pieces of injured vertebrae cut into the spinal cord tissue, or damage the nerves contained in it. These nerves that are responsible for carrying messages to the brain become unable to relay any signals below the site of the injury, and the result is paralysis of all parts of the body below the injury site. When a spinal cord injury is minor, a person may still retain some sensation below the injury, including some measure of movement.
A majority of spinal cord injuries result in permanent disability and paralysis. Most of this paralysis may involve the loss of movement in the arms and legs, known as quadriplegia, as well as and other parts of the body, mostly below the area of injury. A spinal cord injury that affects the body's lower extremities is known as paraplegia. With immediate treatment, a person can avoid or minimize the long-term and debilitating effects of spinal cord injuries.
6. What is the condition for the comas’ person?
Coma is a state in which the patient is totally unconscious, unresponsive, unaware, and unarousable. Patients in a coma do not respond to external stimuli, such as pain or light, and do not have sleep-wake cycles
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